Mixed Economy

The belief in the self-correcting quality of the market and the ‘invisible hand’ of Adam Smith got a major setback in early 20th century during the Great Depression (1929). The impact of the depression spread from the USA to other economies of Western Europe escalating large scale unemployment, downfall in demand and economic activities and lockouts in industrial enterprises. The prevailing Smithonian macro ideas failed to check the crisis.

A new approach was needed which came in the famous work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936) by the English economist at Cambridge University, John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946).

Keynes questioned the very principles of ‘laissez-faire’ and the nature of the ‘invisible hand’. He even opined that the invisible hand brings equilibirium to the economy but by ‘strangulating the poor’. He suggested that prices and wages are not flexible enough to provide employment to all. It means there will be some people unemployed when the economy will be at its full potential. Ultimately, a fall in demand will be imminent resulting in recession and if unchecked, in depression which happened in 1929. Questioning the limitations of the market mechanism, Keynes suggested strong government intervention in the economy. To get the economy out of the depression, he suggested an increase in government expenditures, discretionary fiscal policy (fiscal deficit, lower interest rates, cheap money supply, etc.) to boost the demand of goods and services as this was the reason behind the depression. As Keynesian policies were followed, the concerned economies were successfully pulled out of the Great Depression.

While Keynes was inquiring into the causes and cures of the Great Depression he questioned the capitalist economic system being practised throughout Euro-America. He suggested the capitalistic order to assimilate the goals of the socialistic economy (economic ideals of the socialists, i.e., the ex-USSR). In the capitalist economies of the time, all the basic goods and services were part of the market mechanism, i.e., being produced and supplied by the private sector. It meant that almost everything the people required was supplied by the private enterprises via the market which was ultimately an undimensional movement of money and wealth (from the mass of people to the few who controlled the production and supply chain) and the masses were going through the process of pauperisation every day, thereby weakening their purchasing power. In the end, it affected overall demand and culminated in the Great Depression.

State Economy

Rooted in the ideas of historical change proposed by the German philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883), more specifically, this kind of economic system first came up in the erstwhile USSR after the Bolshevik Revolution (1917) and got its ideal shape in the People’s Republic of China (1949). This form of economic system also spread to other countries in Eastern Europe. Here we see two versions of the state economy—in erstwhile USSR known as the socialist economy and in pre-1985 China as the communist economy. While a socialistic economy emphasised collective ownership of the means of production (property and assets), it also ascribed a large role to the state in running the economy, while communist economy, on the other hand, advocated state ownership of all properties including labour with absolute power to state in running the economy. Though for Marx, Socialism was a transitional stage to communism, it never did happen in reality.

Basically, this form of economy came in reaction to the prevalent popular economic system of capitalism and proposed just the opposite. The decisions related to production, supply and prices were all suggested to be taken solely by the state only. Such economies were also known as Centralised Economy, Centrally Planned Economy or Non-market Economy.

The socialist and communist economies used to criticise capitalistic economics of being based on exploitation. In response, the capitalist economies called them the practioners of ‘state capitalism’, where the state was the sole exploitator. The communist and anti-communist propagandas resulted in serious intellectual discussions almost upto the mid-1980s.

Capitalistic Economy

The capitalistic form of economy has its origin in the famous work of Adam Smith—Wealth of Nations (1776). Adam Smith (1723–1790), the Scottish philosopher-economist professor at the University of Glasgow, whose writings formed the basis of classical economics, had stressed certain fine ideas which were to take fancy among some of the western countries and finally capitalism took birth. He raised his voice against the heavy-handed government regulation of commerce and industry of the time which did not allow the economy to tap its full economic worth and reach the level of well- being. Stressing ‘division of labour’ and an environment of ‘laissez faire’ (non-interference by the government), he proposed that the ‘invisible hand’ of ‘market forces’ (price mechanism) will bring a state of equilibrium in the economy and a general well-being for the countrymen. For such an economy to function for public well-being, he acknowledged the need of competition in the market.

Once the USA attained independence, the ideas of Adam Smith were made part of its public policy—just one year after the Wealth of Nations was published. From here, the idea spread to other parts of Euro-America—by 1800 the economic system called ‘capitalism’ was established which was later known by different names—Private Enterprise System, Free Enterprise System or Market Economy.

The decisions of what to produce, how much to produce and at what price to sell are taken by the market, by the private enterprises in this system, with the state having no economic role.

The Learning Poverty Count (LPC) and Learning Poverty Gap (LPG) in Rural Primary Education

Great strides have been made in India’s primary school enrollment, which is now nearly universal for both boys and girls at elementary level. Yet, both cross-country evidence and evidence from India suggests that educational outcomes are incommensurate with years of schooling: learning lags attending, as it were (Pritchett, 2013; Das and Zajonc, 2010; Singh, 2014).Here we present estimates of learning outcomes drawing parallels from the poverty measurement literature. Specifically, we estimate a learning poverty headcount (LPC) as well as a learning poverty gap (LPG). The LPC simply measures the number of children who do not meet the basic learning benchmark, whereas the LPG additionally takes into account how far each student is from the benchmark. In other words, the LPG measures the gap between the the basic learning benchmark and the average scores of those students who did not meet the benchmark.aSuch estimates are rendered possible by the Annual Survey of Education Reports (ASER) that have over time tested a sample of children between the ages of 5 and 16, residing in rural India. Students are tested in terms of a set of tasks in reading and arithmetic, which have remained constant over time. In a sense, these tests amount to an absolutely minimal or basic level of educational attainment–akin to the poverty or subsistence line. Specifically, we chose this line as being able to read a simple story (in the local language), and being able to do subtraction – roughly meeting the passing standard for grade 3. For the present analysis, we focus on children between in grades 3 through 8.Figures 1 and 2 illustrate how India has fared on these two metrics. The findings are stark. On math and reading, India’s absolute LPC is between 40 and 50 percent: in other words, roughly 40-50 percent of children in rural India in grades 3 to 8 cannot meet the fairly basic learning standard (Figure 1). Discouragingly, this poverty count score rises over time, substantially in the case of math. There is some consolation that since 2014 has the trend started to show some improvement; and also consolation that at least there are no significant differences in the LPC for boys and girls.

How do students perform as they progress through grades? Figure 3 plots the proportion of students in each grade who meet the grade 2 learning benchmark (the vertical distance from the horizontal black line). Unsurprisingly, in higher grades a larger proportion of students meet this basic benchmark. However, as students move to higher grades, the learning benchmark should also increase. While the ASER data does not allow us to directly compute it, the dashed green line is a hypothetical representation of the grade specific benchmark. Using this grade-appropriate poverty line, it is clear that learning levels of children in rural India are far below where they should be. It is sobering enough that learning poverty counts are around 40 percent, roughly where India’s consumption poverty numbers were in the 1970s. But if technology going forward is going to be even more human capital intensive as current trends suggest (dotted yellow line), the wedge between the opportunities offered to the future labour force and the capabilities to take advantage of them will widen even further. That is the true magnitude of India’s human capital How do students perform as they progress through grades? Figure 3 plots the proportion of students in each grade who meet the grade 2 learning benchmark (the vertical distance from the horizontal black line). Unsurprisingly, in higher grades a larger proportion of students meet this basic benchmark. However, as students move to higher grades, the learning benchmark should also increase. While the ASER data does not allow us to directly compute it, the dashed green line is a hypothetical representation of the grade specific benchmark. Using this grade-appropriate poverty line, it is clear that learning levels of children in rural India are far below where they should be. It is sobering enough that learning poverty counts are around 40 percent, roughly where India’s consumption poverty numbers were in the 1970s. But if technology going forward is going to be even more human capital intensive as current trends suggest (dotted yellow line), the wedge between the opportunities offered to the future labour force and the capabilities to take advantage of them will widen even further. That is the true magnitude of India’s human capital challenge.      

Economic survey introduction

Using  district-level  data  on temperature, rainfall and  crop production,  this chapter documents  a long-term trend of  rising temperatures, declining average precipitation,  and  increase  in  extreme  precipitation  events.  A  key  finding—and one  with  significant  implications  as  climate  change  looms—is  that  the  impact  of  temperature and  rainfall is felt  only  in the  extreme;  that is, when  temperatures are  much  higher,  rainfall  significantly  lower,  and  the  number  of   “dry  days” greater,  than  normal.  A  second  key  finding  is  that  these  impacts  are  significantly more adverse  in  unirrigated areas (and  hence  rainfed crops) compared to irrigated areas  (and hence  cereals).  Applying  these  estimates  to projected long-term weather patterns  implies  that  climate  change  could reduce  annual  agricultural incomes  in the  range of  15  percent  to 18  percent  on average,  and up to 20  percent  to 25 percent for unirrigated areas. Minimizing susceptibility  to climate change  requires drastically  extending  irrigation  via  efficient  drip  and  sprinkler  technologies (realizing  “more  crop  for  every  drop”),  and  replacing  untargeted  subsidies  in power and fertilizer by  direct income support. More  broadly, the  cereal-centricity of  policy needs to be reviewed.

INTRODUCTION

6.1 The bounty of  Indian  agriculture romanticized in that  famous Manoj  Kumar song—which  also  underlies the Prime Minister’s goal  of  doubling farmers’ incomes—increasingly runs up against  the  contemporary realities  of Indian  agriculture, and  the  harsher  prospects  of its vulnerability to long-term climate change. 6.2 The  last  few  seasons  have  witnessed  a problem  of  plenty:  farm revenues  declining  for a  number of  crops despite  increasing production and market  prices  falling below  the  Minimum Support  Price  (MSP).  But  in the  medium  to long term, the  ghost  of  Malthus looms over Indian agriculture.  Productivity  will  have  to  be  increased, and  price  and income volatility  reduced,  against the backdrop  of  increasing resource constraints. Shortages  of  water and land, deterioration in soil quality, and  of  course climate change-induced temperature  increases  and  rainfall  variability, are all going to impact agriculture. It is therefore opportune  to analyze the  effects  of  climate  on Indian agriculture. 

Why Agriculture Matters: An Irony 

6.3 First,  and  foremost, agriculture  matters in India for deep reasons, not least  because  the farmer holds a special  place  in Indian hearts  and minds.  The  first  salvo  of  satyagraha  was  fired by  Mahatma Gandhi on behalf  of  farmers,  the indigo farmers exploited  by  colonial rule. Not unlike  in early, Jeffersonian America (Hofstadter, 1955),  history and literature  have  contributed  to the  farmer acquiring mythic  status  in Indian  lore: innocent,  unsullied,  hard-working, in harmony with  nature;  and yet  poor, vulnerable, and the victim,  first  of  the  imperial  masters  and  then  of indigenous  landlords  and middlemen.  Bollywood (and Kollywood  and  Tollywood) has  also  played  a key  role in creating  and reinforcing the  mythology of  the Indian  farmer (for example, in  movies  such as  Mother  India, Do Beegha  Zameen,  Upkaar,  Lagaan, and more recently  Peepli Live). 6.4 Agriculture  also matters  for  economic reasons because  it  still  accounts  for a substantial part  of  GDP  (16  percent)  and employment  (49  percent)1. Poor  agricultural performance can lead  to  inflation,  farmer  distress  and  unrest,  and larger political  and social  disaffection—all  of which can hold back the economy. 6.5 The Nobel Prize winner, Sir Arthur Lewis  (among  others), argued that  economic development  is  always  and everywhere  about getting  people out of  agriculture and of  agriculture becoming over time  a less  important  part of  the economy  (not  in absolute  terms but  as a share of GDP and employment). The reason why agriculture cannot be the  dominant, permanent source  of livelihood  is its productivity  level, and  hence  the living standards it  sustains, can never approach— and have  historically  never approached—those in manufacturing and services.  That,  of  course, means that industrialization  and  urbanization  must provide  those  higher productivity  alternatives to agriculture. But  this  must  happen  along with, and in the  context  of,  rapid  productivity  growth in agriculture, to  produce  greater  food supplies for the  people, provide  rising farm incomes, and permit the accumulation of  human capital.  6.6 At the same time, Dr. Ambedkar  warned about the dangers of  romanticizing rural  India. He  famously  derided  the  village  as “a sink  of localism, a  den of  ignorance, narrow mindedness and communalism,” thereby  expressing a deeper truth—an Indian  social complement  to the Lewisian  economic  insight—that  in the  long run people  need  to  move  and be  moved  out  of agriculture for non-economic reasons. 6.7 So  the irony  is that  the concern  about farmers and  agriculture  today is to ensure that tomorrow  there  are fewer farmers and  farms but more  productive ones.  In  other words, all  good and successful economic  and social development is  about facilitating  this  transition in the  context  of a prosperous  agriculture  and of  rising productivity in agriculture  because  that will also facilitate  good urbanization  and  rising  productivity  in  other sectors of  the economy.

From 26th January 1950

Let  new  India  arise  out  of  peasants’  cottage,  grasping  the plough,  out  of  huts,  cobbler  and sweeper- Swami Vivekananda Republic Day  in  India  is commemorated  in  honour  of  the  formation  of Constitution  of  India  on 26th  January  1950.  India,  in  2018 is  celebrating  its  68th  year  of  Republic  Day. Post-independence  from  the British  rule,  it  was  vital  for  our  Nation  to  frame  a  set  of  guidelines  to abide  by.  A  Drafting  Committee chaired  by  Dr.B.R.Ambedkar  was appointed who contrived the Constitution of  India,  a  document constituting  the  fundamental  political  principles,  procedures, powers,  duties  of  Government  institutions  and  the  fundamental rights,  directive  principles  and duties  of  the  citizens  of  the  country. After  many  deliberations  and modi•cations,  the  document  was brought  into  effect  by  the  Constituent Assembly on 26th January 1950,  the  day  which  started  to  be celebrated  as  Republic  Day  since then. The date  of  26th  January  was chosen  in  honour  of  the  Purna Swaraj  declaration  of  independence of  1930. Indian  Constitution  is  the longest written Constitution in the world and  there  have  been  several amendments  subsequently  to  this living  document.  Justice  Marshall asserts:  “It  is  the  nature  of  (a)  Constitution  that  only  its  great  outlines  be  marked.  It  is  a  document intended  to  endure  for  ages  and therefore,  it  has  to  be  interpreted not  merely  on  the  basis  of  the  intention  and  understanding  of  its framers  but  on  the  experience  of its  working  effectively,  in  the  existing  social context”.

The Solemnization

 political Republic  Day  is  marked  with paying  tributes  to  the  Armed Forces  through  military  parades in  the  capital  city  of  New  Delhi  at Rajpath  and  other  State  capitals  in the  country.  Regiments  of  Indian Army,  Navy  and  Air  Force  march past  in  all  their  •nery  with  the President  of  India,  who  is  the Commander-in-Chief  of  the Armed Forces  taking  the  salute.  It is  a  day  dedicated  to  to  honour  all those  brave  soldiers  who  sacri•ced  their  lives  for  the  Nation with  medals  and  bravery  awards though  that  would  only  be  a  minimal expression of our gratitude  as compared  to  the  immense  eschewal  of  family  and  friends  of  a soldier. The  patriotic  fervour  encompasses  the  school  children  with colourful  dance  troupes  performing  to  the  tunes  of  patriotic  songs during the Republic Day parade in New Delhi.  It  is  considered  a  way to  inculcate  in  the  tiny  minds  a sense  of  allegiance  towards  our Nation.  It  is  also  a  time  for  our Armed Forces to display the country’s  artillery  and  any  new  additions  to  it  during  the  year.  It  helps boost  the  courage  and  self-con•dence  of  the  citizens  of  the  nation. Indian  Air  Force  exhibits  excellent  •ying  skills  with  •ghter  jets •ying past  the  parade  area.  The  radiant  formations  of  the  jets  up  in the  sky  concluding  with  a  tricolour formation  of  our  National  Flag and  their  continuous  shower  of •owers  from  the  sky  exuding resplendence in every bit  is  a  view that  needs  to  be  seen  to  be  believed. The fearless  maneuvering  of  the •ghter  jets  by  the  Air  Force  personnel  in  the  sky  is  sure  to  idolize their  bravery  in  the  minds  of  us  civilians  and  arouse  in  us,  the  perseverance  to  stand  by  the  interests of our  Nation at  any  cost.  The  most awaited  vibrant  tableaus  going past  chronographically,  each  of them  showcasing  the  cultural  intricacies  of  their  State  during  the Republic  Day  parade  is  a  feast  for the eyes and it goes without saying that  it  emphatically  adds  to  a sense  of  pride  and  amazement  in every Indian at the enormity of our cultural  heritage  and  the  diversity that  is  riveted  with  the  background  of  each  State.  Our  immortal  principle  of  “Unity  in  Diversity”  is  best  represented  in  this enriching  parade  of  State-wise tableaus.  Our  tricolour  National Flag  hoisted  in  the  Capital  and  in State  Capitals  on  this  day  enumerates  the  struggles  of  our  innumerable  fellow  country-men  who have sacri•ced  their  lives  to  get  us acountry free of  bondage from foreign  force,  a  country  that  was handed  over  to  Indians  to  be  carried  forward  with  self- regard. Beating  the  retreat,  the  splashy concluding  ceremony  at  Vijay Chowk marks  the  end  of  Republic Day celebrations  held  in  the  evening  of  the  third  day  of  Republic Day, on 29th  of  January  every  year. The retreat  with  the  Chief  Guest  as President  of  India,  is  a  witness  to  a brilliant  display  of  Military Bands,  Pipe  and  Drum  Bands,  Buglers  and Trumpeters from various Army,  Navy  and  Air  Force  Regiments. The tunes to the like of Sare Jahan  Se  Achcha  •ll  the  air  with nationalistic  fervour  and  coagulate the dutifulness in the minds of Indians. The  series  of  events  ending  in  a vibrant  splendour  of  artillery  and bands  conveys  a  resounding watchfulness of our Armed Forces in  conjunction  with  binding  the citizens  of  the  nation  with  courage and  public  spirit.  It  is  an  apt  occasion  to  pay  our  respects  to  these protectors  of  our  Nation. Guest  of  Honour  for  the  occasion  is  usually  a  Head  of  a  State  of another  country  and  the  selection of  the  guest  depends  on  the  strategic,  economic  and  political  interests  of  India  each  year. It  is  directed  towards  building up  good  relations  with  countries in the world and strengthening the already  existing  cordial  relationships  with  certain  other  nations. Inviting  the  then  American  President,  Barack  Obama in 2015 initiated  an  era  of  trust  between  the two  nations  while  inviting  the crown  prince  of  Abu  Dhabi, Sheikh  Mohammed  bin  Zayed  in 2017  deepened  our  ties  with United  Arab  Emirates  in  terms  of infrastructure  investment,  trade and  geopolitics  along  with  restraining  the  lurking  terror  threat in  the world. This year, for the •rst time in the history  of  India,  the  leaders  of  all 10 Association of Southeast Asian Nations  (ASEAN)  countries,  Indonesia,  Malaysia,  Philippines, Singapore,  Thailand,  Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam  will  be  Chief  Guests  on  the Republic  Day.  The Act East Policy of  India  is  the  crux of ASEAN. Thus  this  event  is  seen  as  not only  to  uplift  and  update  the  perception  among  the  citizens  about our Nation but also as a modus operandi  to  develop  and  strengthen mutual  trust  and  kinship  with other  countries  in  the  world.

With  the  current  Government assuring  heightened  socio-economic,  political  and  cultural  reforms to the citizens of  India,  there seems  a  light  at  the  end  of  the  tunnel.  Welfare  of  farmers,  digitalization,  focussing  on  the  issue  of  unemployment through encouraging start-ups  with  Make  in  India  initiative,  giving  a  boost  to  the  personal  morale  of  citizens  with Swachch  Bharath  initiative,  women  empowerment  are  a  few  issues  that  the  current  Government has  been  addressing.  The  effort  to change  the  face  of  India  in  the global  •rmament  through  the country’s  technological  advancements  however  is  only  a  beginning  towards  a  New  India. In  the  words  of  Vikram  Seth  in his  book,  “A  Suitable  Boy”,  the current  Government’s  image  as  an exponent  of  discipline  and  order is  built  on  both  the  successes  and failures of the ancient regime. It offers  modernisation,  but  without modernity,  bullet  trains  without the  culture  of  criticism,  managerial  efficiency  without  the  guarantee  of  equal  rights.  And  this streamlined design for a new India immediately  entices  those  welloff  Indians  who  have  long  regarded  democracy  as  a  nuisance, recoiled  from  the  destitute masses, and idolised technocratic, doers.” As the great potential of India  and  its  citizens  is  in  the  process  of  being  tapped,  there  still seems to  be  a  huge  scope. In  the  wake  of  the  above,  it  is  an enlightened  and  an  honest  leadership that will usher in a near-destitute  people  into  active  citizenship,  economic  prosperity  and self-reliance  thereby  placing  India on a  pedestal  to  progression. On  this  Republic  Day,  it  is  very apt  that  as  citizens  of  a  country with myriad cultures, we assure to remain  united  and  acknowledge the  sacri•ces  made  by  the  soldiers in  the  Armed  Forces,  empathize with their  integrity  and  contribute our bit  for  the  betterment of  our  society  and  our  Nation.  This  reassurance  to  the  self  and  to  the  fellow  countrymen  is  the  minimum we  could  do  as  responsible  citizens  of  one  of  the  largest  democracies  of  the  world. 

The Background 

Post  independent  India  was  a dichotomous  amalgamation  of both  dark  and  bright  sides,  striving  towards  best.  The  era  of  postindependence  re•ected  the  aspirations  of  the  bygone  leaders,  the dreams of foreseers, and the hopes the multitude of Indians.. India acquired  its  long  cherished  independence  on  15th  August,  1947, after  British  government  decided to  lay  down  all  claims  of  the  Indian  dominion.  Behind  all  these rosy and promising state of affairs, there  also  was  underlying  the  extreme  dark  side  of  post-independence  India,  in  the  terrible  fate  of Partition  of  India  into  India  and Pakistan. As if  to  burst  the  balloon  of  Swaraj  illusion,  Mahatma  Gandhi  was assassinated  on  30th  January 1948.  Amidst  such  commotion, Indian  government  post-independence  was  to  behave  in  a  secular  and  sovereign  manner,  taking decisions  pertaining  to  economy,oreign  relations,  border  security and  the  likes.  Keeping  these  sublime  facts  to  mind  and  looking  towards  establishing  India  as  a  respected  free  nation  worldwide, the  country  framed  its  one  of  a kind Constitution on 26th November,  1949. The  Constituent  Assembly  of India  adopted  the  Constitution  of India,  drafted  by  a  colossal  committee, headed by the enigmatic B. R. Ambedkar.  India  from  then  onwards  became  a  federal,  democratic  republic  after  its  Constitution  came  to  effect  on  January  26, 1950,  the  day  which  was  declared henceforth  as  Republic  Day  to  its citizens.  Dr.  Rajendra  Prasad  became  the  •rst  President  of  independent  India.  The  Parliament went  on  to  pass  extensive  reforms that  ampli•ed  the  legal  rights  of women  in  Hindu  society  and  further  legislated  strictly  against caste  discrimination  and  untouchability. 

The Struggle

In  spite  of  various  measures  being taken to uplift the country after independence,  dark  forces  still hovered around,  in  the  form  of  the Jammu & Kashmir issue and its delimitations,  one  of  the  primary causes  that  lead  to  the  Indo-China War  in  1962.  Additional  Kashmir con•icts  erupted  in  the  form  of Indo-Pak  War  in  1971,  wherein Pakistan  had  dangerously  come down  onto  Indian  control  lineups,  forcing  Indian  Army  to  take dire  measures.  The  1971  Indo  Pak War  was  won  by  Indian  brave hearts.  Industrialisation  and  commercialisation  of  technology  and general  goods  product  was  another  domain  that  was  laid primary  emphasis  by  the  post-independence Indian government to verily  in•uence  foreign  trade  and import. However,  despite  the  narrow basis  and  the  class  constraints  on the  democratic  system  in  a  developing  capitalist  society,  it  is  credtable  that  parliamentary  democracy  has  retained  its  vitality  over the years. This is  mainly due to the people  and  their  struggles  and democratic  movements.  One  of the  major  achievements  of  independent  India  is  the  parliamentary democratic system that was instituted  along  with  a  Republican Constitution.  The  Constitution provided  the  scope  for  people's participation  and  a  voice  in  politics,  which  re•ects  the  aspirations of  the  Indian  people  in  their struggle  for  national  independence. The  participation  of  ordinary people in the  elections  at  all  levels is  marked  by  sustained  enthusiasm.  However,  the  political  system  cannot  be  said  to  have  transformed  the  lives  of  people.  The assurances of  securing  their  livelihood,  abolition  of  poverty  and  the structures  of  exploitation  providing  equity  with  economic  growth were still  a  long  way  to  go.

The Constitution 

The  Constitution  of  India,  in  its Directive  Principles,  directs  the state  to  “promote  the  welfare  of the  people  by  securing  a  social  order  in  which  justice,  social,  economic  and  political,  shall  inform all  the  institutions  of  the  national life.  It  calls  for  the  state  to  strive  to minimise  the  inequalities  in  income and to  see  that  the  control  of the  material  resources  of  the  community are so distributed as best to subserve  the  common  good  and  to ensure  that  the  operation  of  the economic  system  does  not  result in the  concentration  of  wealth  and means  of  production  to  common detriment." On the verge  of  entering  the  seventh  decade  now,  we  are  yet  to reach the goals set by our Constitution.  One  of  the  major  reasons  is traced  to  economic  inequalities and  concentration  of  wealth  in certain  pockets  in  the  Nation. 

The Reforms

With  the  current  Government assuring  heightened  socio-economic,  political  and  cultural  reforms to the citizens of  India,  there seems  a  light  at  the  end  of  the  tunnel.  Welfare  of  farmers,  digitalization,  focussing  on  the  issue  of  unemployment through encouraging start-ups  with  Make  in  India  initiative,  giving  a  boost  to  the  personal  morale  of  citizens  with Swachch  Bharath  initiative,  women  empowerment  are  a  few  issues  that  the  current  Government has  been  addressing.  The  effort  to change  the  face  of  India  in  the global  •rmament  through  the country’s  technological  advancements  however  is  only  a  beginning  towards  a  New  India. In  the  words  of  Vikram  Seth  in his  book,  “A  Suitable  Boy”,  the current  Government’s  image  as  an exponent  of  discipline  and  order is  built  on  both  the  successes  and failures of the ancient regime. It offers  modernisation,  but  without modernity,  bullet  trains  without the  culture  of  criticism,  managerial  efficiency  without  the  guarantee  of  equal  rights.  And  this streamlined design for a new India immediately  entices  those  welloff  Indians  who  have  long  regarded  democracy  as  a  nuisance, recoiled  from  the  destitute masses, and idolised technocratic, doers.” As the great potential of India  and  its  citizens  is  in  the  process  of  being  tapped,  there  still seems to  be  a  huge  scope. In  the  wake  of  the  above,  it  is  an enlightened  and  an  honest  leadership that will usher in a near-destitute  people  into  active  citizenship,  economic  prosperity  and self-reliance  thereby  placing  India on a  pedestal  to  progression. On  this  Republic  Day,  it  is  very apt  that  as  citizens  of  a  country with myriad cultures, we assure to remain  united  and  acknowledge the  sacri•ces  made  by  the  soldiers in  the  Armed  Forces,  empathize with their  integrity  and  contribute our bit  for  the  betterment of  our  society  and  our  Nation.  This  re-assurance  to  the  self  and  to  the  fellow  countrymen  is  the  minimum we  could  do  as  responsible  citizens  of  one  of  the  largest  democracies  of  the  world.

Pros and cons of Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is a process of transfer of desired gene into another organism or cells and modify it characters in a way beneficial to humans.

Genetic engineering is a part of biotechnology and is widely used in areas like food and medicine.

The process involves determination of qualities required which might be beneficial to humans.

Isolating the desired gene which encodes for the fore mentioned characters.

Transfer of that isolated desired gene into the genome of organism or cell of choice.

Growing of the organism (whose genome I modified) to express its characters.

Genetic engineering serves the purposes like

Animals: Dairy animals are genetically engineered to yield high quantities of milk and flesh.

Crops: Crops are made more tolerant adverse environment conditions and also disease resistant.

Drugs: Drugs like antibiotics, vaccines, hormones (insulin) are produced in large scales.

Pros and cons of genetic engineering

From the above mentioned, it appears that genetic engineering is highly beneficial. But, like every technology, it also has few disadvantages. So here we discuss them one by one

Pros of genetic engineering

1. To overcome food scarcity
2. To overcome diseases
3. To treat diseases.
4. Enhanced research
5. Large scale production at low price.

Cons of genetic engineering

1. Destruction of natural characters
2. Loss of regeneration ability
3. Decline in natural strength and resistance.
4. Misuse for financial benefits.

To overcome food scarcity: Before the production of genetically engineered plant varieties, the farm yield per hectare was very low. Since the land is a limited resource, one has to grow enough food grains in the limited area. So countries with heavy population and those with severe climatic challenges had to get maximum yield per hectare during crop season. Genetic engineering helped in development of varieties which give more yield. This helped in solving food scarcity and other requirements.

Also disease resistant variety of crops is another contribution. Many crops suffer from multiple diseases and pests leading to low yield. By development of genetically modified seeds which are able to withstand diseases and harsh climatic conditions, the yield has been enhanced.

To overcome diseases: Vaccines are way to prevent diseases in future. Among the types of vaccines available, there are also genetically engineered vaccines. These genetically engineered vaccines are especially made for those diseases where the microbe isolation is difficult. Ex: Hepatitis-B vaccine. 

To treat diseases: This is an area where genetic engineering helps develop drugs to cure diseases. When other means of making drugs are unavailable, genetic engineering helped in mass production of drugs for important diseases like diabetes, cancer etc. Previously insulin was obtained from cattle to treat diabetics. But this method proved to be costly and also insufficient to meet large demands. Then insulin coding gene was introduced into genome of E-Coli through genetic engineering and large amount of insulin was produced by growing of the transformed E-coli in large culture broths.

Enhanced research: During scientific research, many time there is requirement of diseased models of animals  to study the effects of drugs. Such animals with human diseases are produced by genetic engineering to mimic human condition. These animals are then used to see the drugs action. safety profile before taking up for human testing.

Large scale production at low price: Many substances which are produced by traditional methods have very low yield. This makes the process expensive and also time consuming. The same substance can be produced by genetic engineering in large amounts at low prices. Ex: Vitamins, enzymes.

Disadvantages from this technique:

This is quite controversial as many scientists do not agree. But yet there are many problems associated with this technique.

Destruction of natural characters: The original and native varieties are lost over time. And it is impossible to retrieve the original variety once the change has taken place. Some species of wheat, rice and other food crops are best suited for certain climatic conditions. Even consumption of such food is more suitable to the population living there. But due to genetic modification, the new varieties occupy the place of old. This leads to change in the species of plants and also will be less suitable for people for consumption living there.

Loss of regeneration ability: This is another interesting point. Many seed companies are believed to alter the crop seeds such that their yield seeds will not regenerate when sowed into soil. This is thought to make the farmer rely on the seeds from companies again and again. Thus, the companies can derive financial benefits again and again by making farmers dependent on them in future.

Decline in natural strength and resistance: Though these genetically modified varieties are said to be resistant to diseases, it seems they are still prone many other types of diseases for which they were not designed against. Hence though they overcome some diseases, they are even more susceptible for other diseases increase the cost of production.

Even the cattle which are genetically modified are unable to withstand different climatic conditions. Hence though they are bought with a hope of more milk yield, they are unable to survive in the new environment. This again leads to loss of time and money for the farmers.

Misuse for financial benefits: just like every technology, this techniques also can be misused for financial benefits by the biotech companies and scientists.

Pile of garbage

It is the responsibility of the urban local body to ensure segregation of waste at source as per the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Rules, 2015. This means the body must get citizens to segregate waste at the household level and then ensure that this segregated waste—wet and dry, compostable and recyclable—is collected separately and transported separately for processing. 

The easier solution is to collect and dump. Or to believe that unsegregated waste can be sorted out mechanically at the processing plant itself and burnt. Officials of urban local bodies have been given to believe this is the magic bullet: collect, sort and burn. But as experience across India—and from the rest of the world—shows, if waste is not segregated then it will make poor quality fuel. This will not work. 

Segregation at source should therefore be at the heart of municipalities’ solid waste management system. The only city that has truly adopted segregation is Panaji. Municipal officials have ensured a citywide system that is designed to collect household waste on different days for different waste streams. This ensures separation. It is combined with penalties for non-segregated waste and has promoted colony-level processing as well. Most importantly, for the bulk of commercial establishments such as hotels it has a bag-marking system so that any non-compliance can be caught and fined.

In Kerala’s Alappuzha segregation happens differently. Here the municipality does not collect waste because it has no place to take it to for disposal. The city’s only landfill has been sealed by villagers who live in its vicinity. This withdrawal of the municipality from waste management has meant that the people have to manage their waste, or be drowned in it. They segregate and compost what they can. The compost is used for growing vegetables and plants in their homesteads. The problem is how to handle all the non-biodegradable waste—paper, plastic, aluminum tins, etc. This is where the government has stepped in. It promotes collection through the already well-organised informal waste-recycling sector. The municipality has ended up saving a huge capital cost it would have otherwise incurred for collection and transportation.

But this is one part of the waste solution. The other is to make sure there is no place for the unsegregated waste to go. This means taking tough steps to manage landfills in cities. In fact, the MSW (draft) Rules, 2015, accept that landfills should only be used for residual waste that is “non-usable, non-recyclable, non-biodegradable, non-combustible and non-reactive”. It goes on to state that every effort will be made to recycle or reuse the rejects to achieve the desired objective of zero waste to landfill. This is an important departure from previous policies, which ended up emphasising the need for sanitary landfills.

The question is how to enforce this policy. Currently, all contracts for waste management awarded by city governments to private concessionaires have a perverse incentive to bring larger quantities of waste to the dumpsite. Under these contracts the contractor is paid against the volume of waste deposited on the site. This “tipping fee” as it is known means that the higher the volume brought the greater the financial reward. City municipalities also find that the collection, transport and dumping of waste is an easier proposition than processing it for reuse. 

To change this, it is necessary to impose a landfill tax. The contracts need to be redesigned so that instead of the municipality paying for the waste brought to the landfill, the contractor should be made to pay a “tipping fee” for the waste. In this way, instead of being paid to bring waste to the landfill, the contractor or city municipality would have to pay a fee to dispose of the waste. This will provide financial viability to the waste-processing industry and also ensure that as little as possible waste reaches the landfill. 

We need to turn the system of garbage management on its head. Only then will we really clean our cities—not just sweep the dirt under the carpet.

Particulate matter

What is PM, and how does it get into the air?Size comparisons for PM particles

PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope.

Particle pollution includes:

• PM10 : inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller; and
• PM2.5 : fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller.
  • How small is 2.5 micrometers? Think about a single hair from your head. The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter – making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle.

Sources of PM

These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals.

Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires.

Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.

What are the Harmful Effects of PM?

Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your bloodstream.

Fine particles (PM2.5) are the main cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of the United States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness areas.

Plastics in daily life

Strong, lightweight, and moldable, plastics are used in thousands of products that add comfort, convenience, and safety to our everyday lives. Plastics in carpets, blankets, and pillows keep us comfortable in our homes. Plastics in bottles and coolers allow us to take food and drinks with us anywhere. Plastics in portable electronic devices let us access the Internet or communicate with family and friends on the go. Plastics in sports players’ helmets and police officers’ bullet-proof vests keep them safe.

Plastics and Packaging

Plastic’s light weight, strength, and ability to be molded into any form makes it an ideal packaging material. Rigid plastic keeps fragile items secure and flexible plastic makes easy-to-carry bags. Plastic is used for food and non-food packaging. Foods stay fresh longer when packed in plastic, which reduces waste by reducing the amount of spoiled food that must be discarded and decreases the amount of preservatives needed to keep food fresh. Advances in plastic technology has made plastic packaging more efficient: the average packaging weight for a product has been reduced over 28 percent in the last decade. Plastic packaging is convenient for consumers: clear plastic lets shoppers view the item they are purchasing and plastic packaging is easy to open. Plastic packaging protects food, medicine, and other products from contamination and germs when it is displayed and handled. Plastic also protects consumers. Tamper-proof packaging keeps consumers safe and child-proof packaging keeps children safe from accidental poisoning by medications or chemicals. Plastic is shatter-proof, which reduces the potential for injury from broken items.

Plastics and Transportation

Because plastic is both lightweight and durable, it makes an ideal material for manufacturing cars, trucks, and other vehicles. Plastics make up ten percent of new vehicle’s total weight, and over 50 percent of their volume. Steering wheels, door liners, and stereo components are made of plastic, as are less visible parts, such as engine components. As plastic technology advances, many car companies envision using more plastic to lighten the weight of cars and trucks to make them more fuel-efficient. For every ten percent reduction in weight, a car or truck will save five to seven percent in fuel usage. Reduction in vehicle weight translates into a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions: every pound of vehicle weight that can be eliminated means 25.3 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions are saved over the vehicle’s life.

Plastics also make vehicles safer and more comfortable. Life-saving seat belts and airbags are made of plastic. Plastic padded pumpers, door frames, foam door panel inserts, plastic foam filled roof supports, and pillars are structural components that keep occupants safer during a crash. Molded plastic fuel tanks are less likely to split apart during a collision and shatter-proof headlights are less likely to break. The windshield of most cars contains a layer of plastic between two sheets of glass, which makes the windshield less likely to break during a collision. Plastics are also used to make the seats and dashboards more attractive and easy to use. Interior features of vehicles, such as carpets, are often made of recycled PET plastics, giving new life to used plastic beverage containers.

Plastics and Energy Efficiency

Plastics can make your home more energy-efficient. Plastic sealants and caulks can seal up window leaks and plastic foam weather stripping can make doors and windows draft-free. Clear plastic sheeting for windows improves insulation and decreases drafts in the winter. Plastic blinds, window shades, and drapes help insulate windows by keeping out the sun in warm months to keep the house cooler and by keeping in heat during the winter months. Plastic awnings and reflective films also help shade the home. Many brands of high efficiency LED light bulbs are made from recycled plastic. Plastic insulation in the walls, floors, attic, and roof of your home keeps heat in during the winter and out during the summer, which saves you energy and money on your heating and cooling. Plastic foam spray fills large and small holes in walls, doors, and attics.

Plastics in Sports

Plastics are used in many sports to increase athlete efficiency and safety. Plastic helmets—used in many sports, from football to skateboarding—made from molded polycarbonate with interior plastic foam padding reduce head injuries and concussions. Mouth guards reduce injury to the teeth, jaw, and mouth during collisions and plastic foam pads protect players’ shoulders, hips, tailbones, knees, and thighs from injury. Plastic foam pads down and distance markers in football and foam-wrapped goalposts protect players from injury during accidental collisions. Soccer players play with a plastic foam ball and polypropylene netting and benefit from foam shin guards, latex foam goalie gloves, and light-weight cleats. Even the turf of a football or soccer field may be made of plastic, which reduces water and fertilizer use and is recyclable. Plastic has many other uses in sports—from tennis players’ lightweight and strong rackets to beach volleyball’s wound nylon and plastic ball and runners’ shock-absorbing shoes.

Plastics and Medicine

Plastics increase the efficiency and hygiene of medicine from the surgery suite to the physician’s office. Plastic syringes and tubing are disposable to reduce disease transmission. Plastic intravenous blood, fluid, and medicine bags let health care workers more easily view dosages and replacement needs. Plastic heart valves and knee and hip joints save lives and make patients’ lives more comfortable. Plastic prosthesis help amputees regain function and improve their quality of life. Pill capsules made of plastic ensure correct dosage release in the body over time, which lets patients take fewer pills. Plastic catheters and balloons allow doctors to open blocked blood vessels and insert plastic vessel supports to keep them open and dissolve harmful deposits. In addition to plastic eyeglass lenses, contact lenses, and eyeglass frames, plastics help victims of eye injuries or disease see again: silicone artificial corneas can restore patients’ vision. Molded plastic hearing aids assist people with hearing loss to fully participate in conversations again.

Plastics in Electronics

Plastic’s strength, light weight, and moldability have revolutionized electronics. Plastic cables and cords on everything from computers to paper shredders keep electronics powered. Plastic insulation for cables and electrical equipment keeps equipment cool and protects users from over-heating. Household appliances, from toasters to DVD players, use plastic to make them lightweight and affordable. The liquid crystalline plastics in LCD flat screen televisions give beautiful pictures and save energy, using less power than traditional cathode ray tube screens. The touch screens on mobile phones, computers, and other electronics are made of polycarbonate film. The tiny microphones in mobile phones are made of polymers for their shock-resistance. Handsets and earpieces are lighter and more comfortable because of plastics.

Bad or Health

The modern lifestyle is focused on people who are always on the move. For this reason, food is available in cans, plastic containers, and other materials. The more people make use of these items, the higher the rate at which they accumulate the amount of garbage on the planet. Among the most stubborn forms of garbage are plastics. They do not rot as naturally as their other counterparts. Also, when burned up, they emit fumes which contain very harmful chemicals. Here, we focus on the ways plastics affect the planet we call home.

There are some negative things about plastic which has to be considered equally like advantages. Plastic items can’t tolerate high temperatures and releases harmful gases (at high temp.) which cause pollution. Plastic is not easily disposable and it will take thousands of years to completely dispose in soil. This result in other harmful things like blockage of water (resulting floods), death of animals, birds because of eating plastic etc. which are serious concerns of several environmental activists. Even the process of making plastic by industries releases heavy amounts of carbon dioxide.

There are so many advantages with plastic and it has to be used carefully and within the limitations to protect environment. Plastic is recyclable and hence instead of disposing it, everybody must take initiative to recycle so that the effect of plastic on environment will be less. Recycling of plastic not only helps environment but also gives you money. Several governments are making regulatory laws to regulate the use of plastic and several NGO’s from all over the world are trying to create awareness among people about plastic. Presently plastic accounts 10% of waste which is a serious concern of several environmental activists. It has to be reduced substantially for better future.

Sources of Plastic Pollutants

Each day, we release plastics to the environment in ways we do not expect.

• Trash

Trash is everyday materials such as plastic bags,water bottles, milk packets, and electronic parts and so on. High impact plastics find their way to the environment in many different ways including when you ‘innocently’ through a water bottle to the dustbin in town. You may even have an item such as cloth but not recognize the fact that the buttons are made of plastic.

• Overuse of Plastic

It may not be a surprise to recognize the fact that plastics are among the most used material on the planet. The fact that they are among the cheapest and most commonly available materials makes them among the most dangerous pollutants on the planet. The harmful effects of plastics may include the introduction of inorganic materials in the soil and harmful gasses in the atmosphere when it is burned, but plastics do more than that as they have compounds that may cause diseases to people and animals. When they find their way into waterways and other areas, they may harm the users of the water including marine life.

• Fishing Activities

Fishing activities require a lot of equipment such as nets which are mostly made of plastics. When the nets break down, they are often left to stay in the water. Also, the fact that the nets stay in water means that they emit toxins at will. High impact plastics are the worst of them all since their level of harm to the environment is higher than the other types of plastics. The harmful effects of plastics on the environment will depend on the materials that went into their making.

• Used Plastics

Impact plastics are those that continue to release toxins into the environment even after their use. High impact plastics are those whose level of chemicals released is higher than the others. When plastics are used and either disposed of or recycled, they will still release their toxic substances to the environment. People make the mistake of thinking that recycling is the solution to the issue of pollution from plastics when it is not. Even the recycling process for plastics is very costly and will lead to the release of some of the gasses that are released when the plastics are burned.

Pollution from Plastics affects the Natural Food Chain

Among the harmful effects of plastics is that they affect the natural order of feeding. They affect from the large animals to the microscopic plankton which is the main type of food eaten by fish and other aquatic lifeforms. Plastics will affect every part of the food chain to the extent that even the large animals in the food chain will be affected. They may be directly affected by feeding on plastic toxins or indirectly by lacking the food to eat after the plastics have killed the animals down in the chain.

Plastics Pollute sources of Water

A large part of the water we drink is transported through the ground through pipes and other methods. The plastics in the dumpsite will mix,  resulting in high impact plastic and seep into the ground and into most sources of ground water. The harmful effects of plastics can be passed through the ground to the body through various ways like the water explained here. For most people, ground water is assumed to be safe for drinking when the reality is far from that. Unless it has been treated and approved for human consumption, do not attempt to drink it as you will be taking in lots of poisons.

Air and Land Pollution

Plastics have chemicals that can be transported through water and air to various locations that they can harm the people who come into contact with them. For all one may know, the plastic items in the home may not harm them during their use, but once they are burned or disposed of, they will have such a big impact on the environment that they have been declared among the most impactful of pollutants on the planet. One needs to focus on their impact on land, water, and the air to avoid their polluting effect.

Verdict

Finally, plastic is like a double edged sword and we must use it carefully to avoid future complications and environmental problems. Even methods suggested by plastic companies like burying deep in the earth will also have its own implications on environment. So plastic companies and plastic users have to use it cautiously. Plastic must be used according to our needs but not for our luxuries.

With the high number of plastics on the planet and in everyday use, there are measures put in place to stop their pollution on the environment. First of all is the issue of recycling. Recycling will ensure that the plastics do not find their way to the ground or sources of water to impact it in negative ways. It is the responsibility of everyone to take the plastic to the right locations for recycling or other use that will not affect the people around the area. This is the best way of dealing with the plastics.